Aspectos teóricos e implicações práticas da conformidade de memória: uma revisão
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.34019/1982-1247.2020.v14.30361Palavras-chave:
Memória, Conformidade de memória, Reconhecimento, Confiança, Testemunha ocularResumo
A conformidade de memória consiste em alterações dos relatos de memória de um indivíduo provocadas por relatos de memória de outro(s) indivíduo(s). Considerando a importância deste fenômeno no âmbito forense, especialmente na entrevista de testemunhas oculares, o objetivo do presente estudo é compreender melhor o fenômeno da conformidade de memória, e discutir suas implicações nas práticas de inquérito policial. Para isto, realizamos uma revisão narrativa de estudos de laboratório sobre conformidade de memória e de estudos sobre práticas de inquérito. A literatura indica que embora a investigação científica da conformidade de memória tenha apresentado grande avanço nas últimas duas décadas, a incorporação destes achados na prática forense brasileira ainda é lenta. No Brasil, a adoção de práticas de entrevista de testemunhas baseadas em evidência ainda depende de infraestrutura adequada, além de alterações legislativas e em procedimentos administrativos, policiais e jurídicos.
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Referências
Allan, K., & Gabbert, F. (2008). I still think it was a banana: Memorable “lies” and forgettable “truths.” Acta Psychologica, 127(2), 299–308. doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2007.06.001
Asch, S. E. (1955). Opinions and Social Pressure. Scientific American. Scientific American, 193, 31–35. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1155-31
Axmacher, N., Gossen, A., Elger, C. E., & Fell, J. (2010). Graded effects of social conformity on recognition memory. PLoS ONE, 5(2), 2–7. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0009270
Benton, T. R., Ross, D. F., Bradshaw, E., Thomas, W. N., & Bradshaw, G. S. (2006). Eyewitness Memory is Still Not Common Sense: Comparing Jurors, Judges and Law Enforcement to Eyewitness Experts. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20(1), 115-129. doi:10.1002/acp.1171
Berger, J. D., & Herringer, L. G. (1991). Individual differences in eyewitness recall accuracy. The Journal of Social Psychology, 131(6), 807-813. doi:10.1080/00224545.1991.9924667
Brasil. Constituição da República Federativa do Brasil. (1988). Recuperado de http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/constituicao/constituicaocompilado.htm
Brewer, N., Keast, A., & Rishworth, A. (2002). The confidence-accuracy relationship in eyewitness identification: The effects of reflection and disconfirmation on correlation and calibration. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 8(1), 44-56. doi:10.1037/1076-898X.8.1.44
Dallenbach, K. M. (1913). The relation of memory error to time interval. Psychological Review, 20, 323–337. doi:10.1037/h0076103
Davis, D., & Loftus, E. F. (2017). Internal and external sources of misinformation in adult witness memory. In The Handbook of Eyewitness Psychology: Volume I (pp. 195-238). Psychology Press.
Deutsch, M., & Gerard, H. B. (1955). A study of normative and informational social influences upon individual judgment. The journal of abnormal and social psychology, 51(3), 629. doi:10.1037/h0046408
Eisen, M. L., Gabbert, F., Ying, R., & Williams, J. (2017). “I Think He Had A Tattoo On His Neck”: How Co-Witness Discussions About A Perpetrator’s Description Can Affect Eyewitness Identification Decisions. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 6(3), 274–282. doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2017.01.009
Gabbert, F., Memon, A., & Wright, D.B. (2007). I saw it for longer than you: The relationship between perceived encoding duration and memory conformity. Acta Psychologica, 124, 319–331. doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2006.03.009
Garrett, B. L. (2011). Convicting the innocent: Where criminal prosecutions go wrong. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. doi:10.4159/harvard.9780674060982
Harris, C. B., Barnier, A. J., Sutton, J., & Khan, T. (2017). Social contagion of autobiographical memories. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 6(3), 319-327. doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2017.07.006
Innocence Project. (2018). DNA Exonerations in the United States. Recuperado em 07 de Agosto de 2019. http://www.innocenceproject.org/dna-exonerations-in-the-united-states/
Jaeger, A., Lauris, P., Selmeczy, D., & Dobbins, I. G. (2012). The costs and benefits of memory conformity. Memory and Cognition, 40(1), 101–112. doi:10.3758/s13421-011-0130-z
Kassin, S. M., Ellsworth, P. C., & Smith, V. L. (1989). The "general acceptance" of psychological research on eyewitness testimony: A survey of the experts. American Psychologist, 44(8), 1089-1098. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.44.8.1089
Konkel, A., Selmeczy, D., & Dobbins, I. G. (2015). They Can Take a Hint: Older Adults Effectively Integrate Memory Cues during Recognition. Psychology and Aging, 30(4), 781–794. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2012.12.037.Reactivity
Koriat, A. (2008). Subjective confidence in one's answers: The consensuality principle. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 34(4), 945-959. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.34.4.945
Krug, K. (2007). The relationship between confidence and accuracy: Current thoughts of the literature and a new area of research. Applied Psychology in Criminal Justice, 3(1), 7-41.
Lindsay, D. S., Nilsen, E., & Read, J. D. (2000). Witnessing-condition heterogeneity and witnesses' versus investigators' confidence in the accuracy of witnesses' identification decisions. Law and Human Behavior, 24(6), 685-697. doi:10.1023/A:1005504320565
Lindsay, D. S., Read, J. D., & Sharma, K. (1998). Accuracy and confidence in person identification: The relationship is strong when witnessing conditions vary widely. Psychological Science, 9(3), 215-218. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00041
Loftus, E. F. (2005). Planting misinformation in the human mind: A 30-year investigation of the malleability of memory. Learning & Memory, 12(4), 361-366. doi:10.1101/lm.94705
Loftus, E. F., & Greenspan, R. L. (2017). If I’m certain, is it true? Accuracy and confidence in eyewitness memory. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 18, 1–2. doi:10.1177/1529100617699241
Loftus, E. F., Miller, D. G., & Burns, H. J. (1978). Semantic integration of verbal information into a visual memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 4(1), 19-31. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.4.1.19
Meade, M. L., & Roediger, H. L. III. (2002). Explorations in the social contagion of memory. Memory & Cognition, 30(7), 995-1009. doi:10.3758/BF03194318
Mitchell, K. J. & Johnson, M. K. (2009). Source monitoring 15 years later: what have we learned from fMRI about the neural mechanism of source memory? Psychological Bulletin, 135, 638-677. doi:10.1037/a0015849
Penrod, S., & Cutler, B. (1995). Witness confidence and witness accuracy: Assessing their forensic relation. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 1(4), 817-845. doi:10.1037/1076-8971.1.4.817
Roediger, H. L. III, Meade, M. L., & Bergman, E. T. (2001). Social contagion of memory. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 8(2), 365-371. doi:10.3758/BF03196174
Sampaio, C., & Brewer, W. F. (2009). The role of unconscious memory errors in judgments of confidence for sentence recognition. Memory & Cognition, 37(2), 158-163. doi:10.3758/MC.37.2.158
Schnuerch, R., & Gibbons, H. (2014). A review of neurocognitive mechanisms of social conformity. Social Psychology, 45(6), 466. doi:10.1027/1864-9335/a000213
Schwartz, S. L., & Wright, D. B. (2012). Memory conformity for new and old items with immediate and delayed testing. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 26(4), 508-515. doi:10.1002/acp.2820
Selmeczy, D., & Dobbins, I. G. (2017). Ignoring memory hints: The stubborn influence of environmental cues on recognition memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 43(9), 1448-1469. doi:10.1037/xlm0000383
Shaw, J. S. III, Garven, S., & Wood, J. M. (1997). Co-witness information can have immediate effects on eyewitness memory reports. Law and Human Behavior, 21(5), 503–523. Doi:10.1023/A:1024875723399
Sousa, W. S., Jaeger, A. (2019). Conformidade de memória: A influência de respostas externas no reconhecimento de faces humanas (Dissertação de Mestrado). Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais - UFMG, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brasil.
Stein, L. M. (2015). Avanços científicos em psicologia do testemunho aplicados ao reconhecimento pessoal e aos depoimentos forenses. Brasília: SAL/MJ. (Série Pensando o Direito, n. 59).
Stephenson, G. M., Brandstätter, H., & Wagner, W. (1983). An experimental study of social performance and delay on the testimonial validity of story recall. European Journal of Social Psychology, 13(2), 175-191 doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420130207
Tulving, E. (1981). Similarity relations in recognition. Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior, 20(5), 479-496. doi:10.1016/S0022-5371(81)90129-8
Wells, G. L., Kovera, M. B., Douglass, A. B., Brewer, N., Meissner, C. A., & Wixted, J. T. (2020). Policy and procedure recommendations for the collection and preservation of eyewitness identification evidence. Law and Human Behavior, 44(1), 3. doi:10.1037/lhb0000359
Wells, G. L., Olson, E. A., & Charman, S. D. (2002). The confidence of eyewitnesses in their identifications from lineups. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11(5), 151-154. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00189
Wheeler, R., Allan, K., Tsivilis, D., Martin, D., & Gabbert, F. (2013). Explicit Mentalizing Mechanisms and Their Adaptive Role in Memory Conformity. PLoS ONE, 8(4). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0062106
Williamson, P., Weber, N., & Robertson, M.-T. (2013). The Effect of Expertise on Memory Conformity: A Test of Informational Influence. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 31(5), 607–623. doi:10.1002/bsl.2094
Wixted, J. T., & Wells, G. L. (2017). The Relationship Between Eyewitness Confidence and Identification Accuracy: A New Synthesis. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 18(1), 10–65. doi:10.1177/1529100616686966
Wright, D. B., & Villalba, D. K. (2012). Memory conformity affects inaccurate memories more than accurate memories. Memory, 20(3), 254–265. doi:10.1080/09658211.2012.654798
Wright, D. B., Busnello, R. H. D., Buratto, L. G., & Stein, L. M. (2012). Are valence and social avoidance associated with the memory conformity effect? Acta Psychologica, 141(1), 78-85. doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2012.06.008
Wright, D. B., London, K., & Waechter, M. (2010). Social anxiety moderates memory conformity in adolescents. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24(7), 1034-1045. doi:10.1002/acp.1604
Wright, D. B., Mathews, S. A., & Skagerberg, E. M. (2005). Social Recognition Memory: The Effect of Other People's Responses for Previously Seen and Unseen Items. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 11(3), 200-209. doi:10.1037/1076-898X.11.3.200
Wright, D. B., Memon, A., Skagerberg, E. M., & Gabbert, F. (2009). When eyewitnesses talk. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18(3), 174-178. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01631.x
Wright, D. B., Self, G., & Justice, C. (2000). Memory conformity: Exploring misinformation effects when presented by another person. British Journal of Psychology, 91(2), 189–202. doi:10.1348/000712600161781
Zawadzka, K., Krogulska, A., Button, R., Higham, P. A., & Hanczakowski, M. (2016). Memory, metamemory, and social cues: Between conformity and resistance. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 145(2), 181-199. doi:10.1037/xge0000118
Asch, S. E. (1955). Opinions and Social Pressure. Scientific American. Scientific American, 193, 31–35. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1155-31
Axmacher, N., Gossen, A., Elger, C. E., & Fell, J. (2010). Graded effects of social conformity on recognition memory. PLoS ONE, 5(2), 2–7. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0009270
Benton, T. R., Ross, D. F., Bradshaw, E., Thomas, W. N., & Bradshaw, G. S. (2006). Eyewitness Memory is Still Not Common Sense: Comparing Jurors, Judges and Law Enforcement to Eyewitness Experts. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20(1), 115-129. doi:10.1002/acp.1171
Berger, J. D., & Herringer, L. G. (1991). Individual differences in eyewitness recall accuracy. The Journal of Social Psychology, 131(6), 807-813. doi:10.1080/00224545.1991.9924667
Brasil. Constituição da República Federativa do Brasil. (1988). Recuperado de http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/constituicao/constituicaocompilado.htm
Brewer, N., Keast, A., & Rishworth, A. (2002). The confidence-accuracy relationship in eyewitness identification: The effects of reflection and disconfirmation on correlation and calibration. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 8(1), 44-56. doi:10.1037/1076-898X.8.1.44
Dallenbach, K. M. (1913). The relation of memory error to time interval. Psychological Review, 20, 323–337. doi:10.1037/h0076103
Davis, D., & Loftus, E. F. (2017). Internal and external sources of misinformation in adult witness memory. In The Handbook of Eyewitness Psychology: Volume I (pp. 195-238). Psychology Press.
Deutsch, M., & Gerard, H. B. (1955). A study of normative and informational social influences upon individual judgment. The journal of abnormal and social psychology, 51(3), 629. doi:10.1037/h0046408
Eisen, M. L., Gabbert, F., Ying, R., & Williams, J. (2017). “I Think He Had A Tattoo On His Neck”: How Co-Witness Discussions About A Perpetrator’s Description Can Affect Eyewitness Identification Decisions. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 6(3), 274–282. doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2017.01.009
Gabbert, F., Memon, A., & Wright, D.B. (2007). I saw it for longer than you: The relationship between perceived encoding duration and memory conformity. Acta Psychologica, 124, 319–331. doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2006.03.009
Garrett, B. L. (2011). Convicting the innocent: Where criminal prosecutions go wrong. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. doi:10.4159/harvard.9780674060982
Harris, C. B., Barnier, A. J., Sutton, J., & Khan, T. (2017). Social contagion of autobiographical memories. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 6(3), 319-327. doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2017.07.006
Innocence Project. (2018). DNA Exonerations in the United States. Recuperado em 07 de Agosto de 2019. http://www.innocenceproject.org/dna-exonerations-in-the-united-states/
Jaeger, A., Lauris, P., Selmeczy, D., & Dobbins, I. G. (2012). The costs and benefits of memory conformity. Memory and Cognition, 40(1), 101–112. doi:10.3758/s13421-011-0130-z
Kassin, S. M., Ellsworth, P. C., & Smith, V. L. (1989). The "general acceptance" of psychological research on eyewitness testimony: A survey of the experts. American Psychologist, 44(8), 1089-1098. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.44.8.1089
Konkel, A., Selmeczy, D., & Dobbins, I. G. (2015). They Can Take a Hint: Older Adults Effectively Integrate Memory Cues during Recognition. Psychology and Aging, 30(4), 781–794. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2012.12.037.Reactivity
Koriat, A. (2008). Subjective confidence in one's answers: The consensuality principle. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 34(4), 945-959. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.34.4.945
Krug, K. (2007). The relationship between confidence and accuracy: Current thoughts of the literature and a new area of research. Applied Psychology in Criminal Justice, 3(1), 7-41.
Lindsay, D. S., Nilsen, E., & Read, J. D. (2000). Witnessing-condition heterogeneity and witnesses' versus investigators' confidence in the accuracy of witnesses' identification decisions. Law and Human Behavior, 24(6), 685-697. doi:10.1023/A:1005504320565
Lindsay, D. S., Read, J. D., & Sharma, K. (1998). Accuracy and confidence in person identification: The relationship is strong when witnessing conditions vary widely. Psychological Science, 9(3), 215-218. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00041
Loftus, E. F. (2005). Planting misinformation in the human mind: A 30-year investigation of the malleability of memory. Learning & Memory, 12(4), 361-366. doi:10.1101/lm.94705
Loftus, E. F., & Greenspan, R. L. (2017). If I’m certain, is it true? Accuracy and confidence in eyewitness memory. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 18, 1–2. doi:10.1177/1529100617699241
Loftus, E. F., Miller, D. G., & Burns, H. J. (1978). Semantic integration of verbal information into a visual memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 4(1), 19-31. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.4.1.19
Meade, M. L., & Roediger, H. L. III. (2002). Explorations in the social contagion of memory. Memory & Cognition, 30(7), 995-1009. doi:10.3758/BF03194318
Mitchell, K. J. & Johnson, M. K. (2009). Source monitoring 15 years later: what have we learned from fMRI about the neural mechanism of source memory? Psychological Bulletin, 135, 638-677. doi:10.1037/a0015849
Penrod, S., & Cutler, B. (1995). Witness confidence and witness accuracy: Assessing their forensic relation. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 1(4), 817-845. doi:10.1037/1076-8971.1.4.817
Roediger, H. L. III, Meade, M. L., & Bergman, E. T. (2001). Social contagion of memory. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 8(2), 365-371. doi:10.3758/BF03196174
Sampaio, C., & Brewer, W. F. (2009). The role of unconscious memory errors in judgments of confidence for sentence recognition. Memory & Cognition, 37(2), 158-163. doi:10.3758/MC.37.2.158
Schnuerch, R., & Gibbons, H. (2014). A review of neurocognitive mechanisms of social conformity. Social Psychology, 45(6), 466. doi:10.1027/1864-9335/a000213
Schwartz, S. L., & Wright, D. B. (2012). Memory conformity for new and old items with immediate and delayed testing. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 26(4), 508-515. doi:10.1002/acp.2820
Selmeczy, D., & Dobbins, I. G. (2017). Ignoring memory hints: The stubborn influence of environmental cues on recognition memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 43(9), 1448-1469. doi:10.1037/xlm0000383
Shaw, J. S. III, Garven, S., & Wood, J. M. (1997). Co-witness information can have immediate effects on eyewitness memory reports. Law and Human Behavior, 21(5), 503–523. Doi:10.1023/A:1024875723399
Sousa, W. S., Jaeger, A. (2019). Conformidade de memória: A influência de respostas externas no reconhecimento de faces humanas (Dissertação de Mestrado). Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais - UFMG, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brasil.
Stein, L. M. (2015). Avanços científicos em psicologia do testemunho aplicados ao reconhecimento pessoal e aos depoimentos forenses. Brasília: SAL/MJ. (Série Pensando o Direito, n. 59).
Stephenson, G. M., Brandstätter, H., & Wagner, W. (1983). An experimental study of social performance and delay on the testimonial validity of story recall. European Journal of Social Psychology, 13(2), 175-191 doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420130207
Tulving, E. (1981). Similarity relations in recognition. Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior, 20(5), 479-496. doi:10.1016/S0022-5371(81)90129-8
Wells, G. L., Kovera, M. B., Douglass, A. B., Brewer, N., Meissner, C. A., & Wixted, J. T. (2020). Policy and procedure recommendations for the collection and preservation of eyewitness identification evidence. Law and Human Behavior, 44(1), 3. doi:10.1037/lhb0000359
Wells, G. L., Olson, E. A., & Charman, S. D. (2002). The confidence of eyewitnesses in their identifications from lineups. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11(5), 151-154. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00189
Wheeler, R., Allan, K., Tsivilis, D., Martin, D., & Gabbert, F. (2013). Explicit Mentalizing Mechanisms and Their Adaptive Role in Memory Conformity. PLoS ONE, 8(4). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0062106
Williamson, P., Weber, N., & Robertson, M.-T. (2013). The Effect of Expertise on Memory Conformity: A Test of Informational Influence. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 31(5), 607–623. doi:10.1002/bsl.2094
Wixted, J. T., & Wells, G. L. (2017). The Relationship Between Eyewitness Confidence and Identification Accuracy: A New Synthesis. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 18(1), 10–65. doi:10.1177/1529100616686966
Wright, D. B., & Villalba, D. K. (2012). Memory conformity affects inaccurate memories more than accurate memories. Memory, 20(3), 254–265. doi:10.1080/09658211.2012.654798
Wright, D. B., Busnello, R. H. D., Buratto, L. G., & Stein, L. M. (2012). Are valence and social avoidance associated with the memory conformity effect? Acta Psychologica, 141(1), 78-85. doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2012.06.008
Wright, D. B., London, K., & Waechter, M. (2010). Social anxiety moderates memory conformity in adolescents. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24(7), 1034-1045. doi:10.1002/acp.1604
Wright, D. B., Mathews, S. A., & Skagerberg, E. M. (2005). Social Recognition Memory: The Effect of Other People's Responses for Previously Seen and Unseen Items. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 11(3), 200-209. doi:10.1037/1076-898X.11.3.200
Wright, D. B., Memon, A., Skagerberg, E. M., & Gabbert, F. (2009). When eyewitnesses talk. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18(3), 174-178. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01631.x
Wright, D. B., Self, G., & Justice, C. (2000). Memory conformity: Exploring misinformation effects when presented by another person. British Journal of Psychology, 91(2), 189–202. doi:10.1348/000712600161781
Zawadzka, K., Krogulska, A., Button, R., Higham, P. A., & Hanczakowski, M. (2016). Memory, metamemory, and social cues: Between conformity and resistance. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 145(2), 181-199. doi:10.1037/xge0000118
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2020-10-04
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Número Temático: Cérebro & Mente: Interações
